White-tailed deer
Odocoileus virginianus
 
ITIS Species Code:   180699         NatureServ Element Code:   AMALC02020
 
Taxa: 
Order: 
Family: 
Mammalia
Artiodactyla
Cervidae
NatureServe Global Rank: 
NatureServe State (NC) Rank: 
 
G5
S5
 
Federal Status: 
NC State Status: 
 
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HEXAGONAL KNOWN RANGE:PREDICTED DISTRIBUTION:
 
SUMMARY OF STATEWIDE PREDICTED DISTRIBUTION:
 
Land Unit
US Fish & Wildlife Service
US Forest Service
US National Park Service
US Department of Defense
NC State Parks
NC University System
NC Wildlife Res. Com.
NC Forest Service
NC Div. of Coastal Mgmt.
Local Governments
Non-Governmental Org.
Other Public Lands
Private Lands
GAP Status 1-2
All Protected Lands
Statewide
 
Hectares
60,727.95
77,945.94
109,028.43
12,496.68
6,845.31
22,962.15
67,739.40
10,016.13
2,737.17
1,820.07
10,910.79
1,571.13
3,890,274.39
149,256.39
381,805.41
4,275,075.54
 
Acres
150,062.00
192,608.57
269,415.07
30,879.96
16,915.13
56,740.70
167,387.67
25,141.51
6,763.69
4,497.49
26,961.14
3,882.35
9,613,075.50
369,211.62
943,852.65
10,564,330.78
% of Dist. on
Prot. Lands
15.9 %
20.4 %
28.1 %
3.3 %
1.8 %
6.0 %
17.5 %
2.6 %
0.7 %
2.8 %
2.8 %
0.3 %
< 0.1 %
39.1 %
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% of Dist. on
All Lands
1.4 %
1.8 %
2.6 %
0.3 %
0.2 %
0.5 %
1.6 %
0.2 %
< 0.1 %
< 0.1 %
0.3 %
< 0.1 %
91.0 %
3.5 %
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HABITAT DESCRIPTION:
NATURE SERVE GLOBAL HABITAT COMMENTS:

Various habitats from forests to fields with adjacent cover. In northern regions, usually requires stands of conifers for winter shelter. In the north and in montane regions, limited ecologically by the depth/duration/quality of snow cover; summer ranges are traditional but winter range may vary with snow conditions. Within arid regions, prefers more mesic situations (riparian zones, montane woodlands). Young are born in protected areas in thick vegetation.

 
MODELING DESCRIPTION:
Occupied Landcover Map Units:
Code NameDescription NC Natural Heritage Program Equivalent
3 Tidal Marsh Fresh and brackish tidal marshes, including cord grass, wild rice, sawgrass and needlerush alliances. Brackish Marsh, Interdune pond, Maritime wet grassland
124 Maritime Scrubs and Tidal Shrublands Coastal shrubs including wax-myrtle, swamp rose, alder, yaupon, and greenbriar. Maritime Shrubs, Salt Shrub
372 Interdune Herbaceous Wetlands Dune swales with permanently flooded to intermittently exposed hydrology. Species composition depends on salinity and can include cut grass, spike-rush, mosquito fern, and hornwort. Interdune Pond, Maritime Wet Grasslands
371 Maritime Grasslands Dune grass community consisting of sea oats and beach grasses. Dune grass, Maritime dry grassland
75 Tidal Swamp Forest Swamp tupelo dominated forest with or without black tupelo and/or cypress trees. Restricted to the tidal zones in the coastal plain. May have inclusions of coastal red cedar woodlands. Tidal cypress - gum swamp
121 Maritime Pinelands Loblolly forests and woodlands of the outer coastal plain. Estuarine Fringe Loblolly Pine Forest
17 Maritime Forests and Hammocks Maritime forests and woodlands dominated by live or sand laurel oak. Estuarine Fringe forests dominated by loblolly pine. Coastal Fringe Evergreen Forest, Maritime Deciduous Forest, Maritime Deciduous Forest
126 Interdune Wooded Depression Swamp Includes swamps dominated by sweetbay and swampbay or dogwood dominated forests. Maritime Shrub Swamp, Maritime Swamp Forest
380 Coastal Plain Fresh Water Emergent Emergent vegetation in fresh water seepage bogs, ponds and riverbeds of the coastal plain. Includes alliances dominated by sedges, eelgrass, as well as cane found in unforested cane-brakes. Small Depression Pond, Sandhill Seep, Floodplain Pool, Unforested Floodplain Canebrake, Riverscour Prairies, Vernal Pools
173 Coastal Plain Riverbank Shrubs Shrub dominated riverbanks, commonly dominated by willows and/or alders. Sand and Mud Bar
50 Coastal Plain Mixed Bottomland Forests Includes forests dominated by a variety of hardwood species, including sweetgum, cottonwood, red maple. Coastal Plain Bottomland Hardwood (in part), Coastal Plain Levee Forest
49 Coastal Plain Oak Bottomland Forest Bottomland forests dominated by deciduous oak alliances. Oaks represented can include swamp chestnut, cherrybark, willow, and/or overcup oak. Inclusions of loblolly pine temporarily flooded forests occur in patches. Hydrology is temporarily to seasonally flooded. Coastal Plain Bottomland Hardwoods (in part) blackwater subtype, brownwater subtype
158 Coastal Plain Nonriverine Wet Flat Forests Loblolly pine - Atlantic white-cedar - red maple - swamp tupelo saturated forests as well as forests dominated by loblolly, sweetgum, and red maple in non-riverine flats. Non-riverine Wet Hardwood Forest
41 Peatland Atlantic White-Cedar Forest Dense stands of Atlantic white cedar with saturated hydrology. Can include swamp tupelo, red maple, and pond pines with a moderate shrub and herb layer. Peatland Atlantic White-Cedar Forest
15 Seepage and Streamhead Swamps Includes extensive peat flats in the coastal plain, dominated by swamp tupelo, maples, and Atlantic white cedar alliances. In the sandhills includes streamhead pond pine and bay forests alliances. Saturated hydrology. Bay Forest, Small Depression Pocosin, Streamhead Atlantic White Cedar Forest, Streamhead Pocosins
30 Cypress-Gum Floodplain Forests Swamps dominated by black or swamp tupelo with or without Taxodium. Seasonally to semi-permanently flooded hydrology. Cypress-Gum Swamps
78 Pond-Cypress - Gum Swamps, Savannas and Lakeshores Cypress dominated swamps and lakeshores. Can include bays dominated by pond cypress or shorelines of coastal plain lakes with a narrow band of cypress. Non-riverine Swamp Forest, Natural Lakeshores (in part)
385 Oak Bottomland Forest and Swamp Forest The swamp chestnut oak, cherrybark oak, shumard oak and sweetgum alliance is one representative. Other alliances are dominated by water, willow, and overcup oaks. Swamp forests can be dominated by sweetgum, red maple, and black gum being dominant. Loblolly can occur in combination with sweetgum and red maple, or with tulip poplar. Includes saturated and semi- to permanently flooded forests in the mountains. Piedmont/Mountain Bottomland Forest, Piedmont/Mountain Swamp Forest
63 Coastal Plain Mesic Hardwood Forests Beech dominated forests with white oak and northern red oak as possible co-dominants. Dry-mesic to mesic forests on slopes and small stream bottoms in the coastal plain. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest, Basic Mesic Forests
138 Coastal Plain Dry to Dry-Mesic Oak Forests Oak dominated forests of the coastal plain. Includes white oak forests with water oak or northern red oak and hickories as co-dominants. Dry Mesic Oak Hickory Forest, Basic Oak Hickory Forest, Dry Oak Hickory Forest
87 Pocosin Woodlands and Shrublands Includes pond pine woodland, low pocosin and high pocosin shrub dominated areas. Canebrakes and bay forests may be present. Pond Pine Woodlands, Peatland Canebrake, Small Depression Pocosin
67 Wet Longleaf or Slash Pine Savanna Wet flatwoods and pine savannas, typically dominated by longleaf pines, but slash or pond pines may be the dominant pines. Wet Pine Flatwoods
97 Mesic Longleaf Pine Longleaf pine woodlands without a major scrub oak component. Slash or loblolly pines may be present as well. Mesic Pine Flatwoods
42 Xeric Longleaf Pine Sandhills including a range of longleaf pine density from predominantly wiregrass, scrub oak dominated to true longleaf pine woodland. This does not include mesic or saturated flatwood types. Xeric Sandhill Scrub, Pine/Scrub Oak Sandhill, Coastal Fringe Sandhill
46 Xeric Oak - Pine Forests Mixed forest dominated by yellow pines with white or northern red oaks co-dominating. Pine Oak Heath
232 Xeric Pine-Hardwood Woodlands and Forests Mixed forest dominated by yellow pines with drier oaks including southern red, post, and chestnut oaks. Dry Oak Hickory Forest
239 Piedmont/Mountain Emergent Vegetation Emergent vegetation of all wetland hydrologies. Sites would commonly support species such as tussock sedge, rushs, and cattail alliances. Rocky Bar and Shore (in part)
267 Riverbank Shrublands Riverside shrubs with temporarily flooded hydrologies. Found in the both the Mountains and Piedmont. Containing dominants such as smooth alder and a Carolina or black willows. Sand and Mud Bar
269 Floodplain Wet Shrublands Saturated shrublands of the Piedmont, includes buttonbush, swamp-loosestrife, decodon and alders. Piedmont/mountain Semipermanent Impoundment
230 Piedmont Mesic Forest American Beech - Red Oak - White Oak Forests. Mesic Mixed Hardwood
384 Piedmont/Mountain Mixed Bottomland Hardwood Forests Includes temporarily to seasonally forests dominated by hardwood species. Hardwoods include sweetgum, red maple, sycamore which co-occur in a mosaic of bottomland and levee positions. Includes alluvial hardwood forests in the mountains. Hemlock and white pine may occur as inclusions, but are generally mapped separately. Piedmont/Mountain Alluvial Forest, Piedmont/Mountain Levee Forest
383 Piedmont Mixed Successional Forest Generally loblolly mixed with successional hardwoods. Sweetgum, tulip poplar and red maple are common co-dominants in these successional forests. No equivalent
228 Piedmont Dry-Mesic Oak and Hardwood Forests Primarily oak dominated forests, white oak is often dominant, with co-dominants including . Also represented by sweetgum and tulip poplar dominated forests. Dry Mesic Oak Hickory Forest, Basic Oak Hickory Forest, Dry Oak Hickory Forest
222 Piedmont Dry-Mesic Pine Forests Loblolly dominated forests resulting from succession following clearing. This type occurs on all moisture regimes following disturbance with the exception of the extremely xeric sites. No equivalent
382 Dry Mesic Oak Pine Forests Mixed forests of the coastal plain and piedmont. Includes loblolly pine with white, southern red and/or post oak and loblolly with water oak. On basic sites of the piedmont, eastern red cedar may co-occur with post, black, and blackjack oaks. Dry Mesic Oak Hickory Forest, Xeric Hard Pan Forest, Chestnut Oak Forest, Dry Mesic Oak Hickory Forest, Dry Oak Hickory Forest
220 Piedmont Xeric Pine Forests Dry to xeric pine forests dominated by Virginia pine, shortleaf pine or Eastern Red Cedar. Pine Oak Heath
226 Piedmont Xeric Woodlands Generally post and blackjack oak dominated woodlands. White ash and pignut hickory can be found in combination with Eastern red cedar on glades. Xeric Hardpan Forest
20 Coniferous Regeneration Regenerating pine stands. Predominantly loblolly pine, but slash and longleaf stands occur as well. No equivalent
21 Coniferous Cultivated Plantation (natural / planted) Managed pine plantations, densely planted. Most planted stands are loblolly, but slash and longleaf occur as well. No equivalent
51 Deciduous Cultivated Plantation Planted deciduous trees. Includes sweetgum and sycamore plantations. No equivalent
36 Successional Deciduous Forests Regenerating deciduous trees with a shrub stature. Commonly dominated by sweetgum, tulip poplars and maples. No equivalent
180 Agricultural Crop Fields Farm fields used for row crops. No equivalent
205 Agricultural Pasture/Hay and Natural Herbaceous Farm fields used for pasture grass or hay production, as well as old fields dominated by native and exotic grasses. No equivalent
202 Residential Urban Includes vegetation interspersed in residential areas. Includes lawns, mixed species woodlots, and horticultural shrubs. Vegetation accounts for between 20 - 70% of the cover. No equivalent
517 Hemlock Floodplain Forest Alluvial forest with hemlock and/or white pine in mountains and western piedmont. Hydrology is generally temporarily to seasonally flooded. Canada Hemlock Forest
521 Spruce/Fir Forest High Elevation Frazer-Fir - Red Spruce, Red Spruce and Red-Spruce-Yellow Birch Forests. Tree densities included here include both woodland to forest density. Highly intermixed with Northern Hardwoods, Grassy Balds, and Shrub Balds. Red Spruce--Fraser Fir Forest, Fraser Fir Forest
522 Northern Hardwoods High Elevation forests including yellow birch, American beech, and yellow buckeye. Includes forests with Hemlock and Yellow Birch. Northern Hardwoods Forest, Boulderfield Forest
523 Grassy Bald High Elevation grassy balds including Pennsylvania sedge, mountain oatgrass, as well as shrubby areas dominated by Alleghany and smooth blackberry. Grassy Bald
524 Shrub Bald Variable phenologies, predominantly evergreen balds with rhododendon and Mountain laurels. Deciduous shrubs including green alder and Alleghany and smooth blackberry are included as well. Red Oak - Chestnut Oak Woodlands may be included in cases where the density of the woodland species is low and the shrub component is dense. Heath Bald
525 Appalachian Oak Forest A variety of oak forest types including Black, White, Scarlet Oaks in dry to mesic situations. Includes forests historically co-dominated by American Chestnut. High Elevation Red Oak Forest, Montane White Oak Forest
526 Appalachian Cove Forest Mixed Mesophytic forests of the mountains. Includes tuliptree, basswood, yellow buckeye and surgar maple. This class is mapped to include cove forests dominated or co-dominated by hemlock. Rich Cove Forest, Acidic Cove Forest
527 Appalachian Hemlock Upland hemlock forests of the moutains region. Vary from side slopes to steep slope positions. Canada Hemlock Forest
528 Appalachian Xeric Pine Forest Pine forests and woodlands on xeric sites. A variety of pines, including Virginia, Shortleaf, Eastern White Pine, Table Mountain and Pitch pine. Often small areas of dense pine within a matrix of Xeric Oak-Pine Forests. Pine Oak Heath
529 Appalachian Xeric Mixed Forest Mixed forests with Virginia, Shortleaf, Eastern White Pine, Table Mountain and Pitch pines in combination with xeric oak species. Oaks include, white, Southern Red, black, and rock chestnut. Pine Oak Heath
530 Appalachian Xeric Deciduous Forest Deciduous forests in the mountains dominated by Xeric Oak species. Species include, white, Southern red, black, and rock chestnut. High Elevation Red Oak Forest, Montane White Oak Forest
533 Appalachian Swamp Forest Evergreen and deciduous forests with saturated hydrologies. This class may contain a variety of trees species, including hemlock - red maple, pitch pine, and white pine forests. Swamp Forest-Bog Complex, Southern Appalachian Bog, Southern Appalachian Fen
534 Appalachian Wet Shrubland/ Herbaceous Saturated shrubs and herbaceous vegetation. Often mapped as an inclusion in Appalachian Swamp Forest. Southern Appalachian Bog, Southern Appalachian Fen
View Entire Landcover Legend
 
Additional Spatial Constraints:
Exclude all area outside of known range.
Limited to edge habitats including forest/field borders, shrublands and woodlands.
 
CITATIONS:
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Gavin, T. A., and B. May. 1988. Taxonomic status and genetic purity of Columbian white-tailed deer. J. Wildlife Management 52:1-10.

Hygnstrom, S. E., and S. R. Craven. 1988. Electric fences and commercial repellents for reducing deer damage in cornfields. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 16:291-296.

Maffei, M. D., W. D. Klimstra, and T. J. Wilmers. 1988. Cranial and mandibular characteristics of the Key deer (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS CLAVUM). J. Mamm. 69:403-407.

Potvin, F., et al. 1992. Evaluation of an experimental wolf reduction and its impact on deer in Papineau-Labelle Reserve, Quebec. Canadian J. Zoology 70:1595-1603.

Girard, G. T., B. D. Anderson, and T. A. De Laney. 1993. Managing conflicts with animal activists:white-tailed deer and Illinois nature reserves. Natural Areas Journal 13:10-17.

Mathews, N. E., and W. F. Porter. 1993. Effect of social structure on genetic structure of free-ranging white-tailed deer in the Adirondack Mountains. J. Mamm. 74:33-43.

Nelson, M. E. 1993. Natal dispersal and gene flow in white-tailed deer in northeastern Minnesota. J. Mamm. 74:316-322.

Anderson, R. C. 1994. Height of white-flowered trillium (TRILLIUM GRANDIFLORUM) as an index of deer browsing intensity. Ecological Applications 4:104-109.

Schmitz, O. J., and T. D. Nudds. 1994. Parasite-mediated competition in deer and moose:how strong is the effect of meningeal worm on moose? Ecological Applications 4:91-103.

Whitlaw, H. A., and M. W. Lankester. 1994. A retrospective evaluation of the effects of parelaphostrongylosis on moose populations. Can. J. Zool. 72:1-7.

Whitlaw, H. A., and M. W. Lankester. 1994. The co-occurrence of moose, white-tailed deer, and PARELAPHOSTRONGYLUS TENUIS in Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 72:819-825.

Taylor, W.P. 1956. The deer of North America. The white-tailed, mule and black-tailed deer, genus Odocoileus, their history & management. Stackpole Co. and Wildl. Mgmt. Inst. 668 pp.

Smith, W. P. 1991. Odocoileus virginianus. Am. Soc. Mamm., Mammalian Species No. 388:1-13.

Jones, J. K., Jr., et al. 1992. Revised checklist of North American mammals north of Mexico, 1991. Occas. Pap. Mus., Texas Tech Univ. (146):1-23.

Ellsworth, D. L., et al. 1994. Historical biogeography and comtemporary patterns of mitochondrial DNA variation in white-tailed deer from the southeastern United States. Evolution 48:122-136.

Nelson, M. E., and L. D. Mech. 1992. Dispersal in female white-tailed deer. J. Mamm. 73:891-894.

Miller, S. G., S. P. Bratton, and J. Hadidian. 1992. Impacts of white-tailed deer on endangered and threatened vascular plants. Natural Areas Journal 12:67-74.

Strole, T. A., and R. C. Anderson. 1992. White-tailed deer browsing:species preferences and implications for central Illinois forests. Natural Areas Journal 12:139-144.

Carr, S. M., and G. A. Hughes. 1993. Direction of introgressive hybridization between species of North American deer (ODOCOILEUS) as inferred from mitochondrial-cytochrome-b sequences. J. Mamm. 74:331-342.

Rooney, T. P. 1995. Restoring landscape diversity and old growth to Pennsylvania's northern hardwood forests. Natural Areas Journal 15:274-278.

Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder (editors). 1993. Mammal Species of the World:a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Second Edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. xviii + 1206 pp.

Wood, P., and M. L. Wolfe. 1988. Intercept feeding as a means of reducing deer-vehicle collisions. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 16:376-380.

Williamson, S. J. No date. Forester's guide to wildlife habitat improvement. Cooperative Extension Service, Univ. of New Hampshire. 56 pp.

Tilghman, N. G. 1989. Impacts of white-tailed deer on forest regeneration in northwestern Pennsylvania. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:524-532.

Rue, L.L. 1962. World of the white tailed deer. Phila. 134 pp.

Jones, J. M., and J. H. Whitham. 1990. Post-translocation survival and movement of metropolitan white-tailed deer. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 18:434-441.

McCullough, D.R. 1969. Tule elk:its history, behavior, and ecology. Univ. California Publ. Zool., Berkeley. 216 pp.

Banfield, A.W.F. 1974. The mammals of Canada. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

Godin, A.J. 1977. Wild Mammals of New England. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 304 pp.

Nelson, M. E., and L. D. Mech. 1984. Home-range formation and dispersal of deer in northeastern Minnesota. J. Mamm. 65:567-575.

Hamilton, William J., Jr., and John O. Whitaker, Jr. 1979. Mammals of the eastern United States. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, New York. 346 pp.

Hall, E. R. 1981. The Mammals of North America. Second edition. 2 Volumes. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

McCullough, D. R. 1985. Variables influencing food habits of white-tailed deer on the George Preserve. J. Mamm. 66:682-692.

Schwartz, Charles W., and Elizabeth R. Schwartz. 1981. The wild mammals of Missouri. University of Missouri Press, Columbia. 356 pp.

Baker, Rollin H. 1983. Michigan mammals. Michigan State University Press. 642 pp.

Humphrey, S. R., and B. Bell. 1986. The key deer population is declining. Wildlife Society Bull. 14:261-265.

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Mitchell, W. A. 1986. Deer spotlight census. Section 6.4.3, US Army Corps of Engineers Wildife Resources Management Manual. Tech. Rep. EL-86-53. Waterways Expt. Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Mitchell, W. A. 1986. White-tailed deer track count census. Section 6.4.2, US Army Corps of Engineers Wildife Resources Management Manual. Tech. Rep. EL-86-52. Waterways Expt. Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Wemmer, C. M., editor. 1987. Biology and management of theCervidae:proceedings of a symposium. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D. C. 1000 pp.

Cypher, B. L., and E. A. Cypher. 1988. Ecology and management of white-tailed deer in northeastern coastal habitats; a synthesis of literature pertinent to National Wildlife Refuges.... US Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 88(15).

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Mech, L. D., et al. 1987. Relationship of deer and moose populations to previous winters' snow. J. Anim. Ecol. 56:615-627.

Cronin, M. A. 1991. Mitochondrial-DNA phylogeny of deer (Cervidae). J. Mamm. 72:533-566.

Cronin, M. A. 1991. Mitochondrial and nuclear genetic relationships of deer (ODOCOILEUS spp.) in western North America. Can. J. Zool. 69:1270-1279.

Cronin, M. A., M. E. Nelson, and D. F. Pac. 1991. Spatial heterogeneity of mitochondrial DNA and allozymes among populations of white-tailed deer and mule deer. J. Heredity 82:118-127.

Derr, J. N. 1991. Genetic interactions between white-tailed and mule deer in the southwestern United States. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:228-237.

Caire, W., J. D. Tyler, B. P. Glass, and M. A. Mares. Z. Marsh (illustrator). 1989. Mammals of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Oklahoma. 567 pp.

Rue, L. L., III. The deer of North America. Updated and expanded edition. Stackpole. 544 pp.

Kraus, F., and M. M. Miyamoto. 1991. Rapid cladogenesis among the pecoran ruminants:evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Syst. Zool. 40:117-130.

Cronin, M. A., E. R. Vyse, and D. G. Cameron. 1988. Genetic relationships between mule deer and white-tailed deer in Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 52:320-328.

Novak, J. M., et al. 1991. Catch-effort estimation of white-tailed deer population size. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:31-38.
10 March 2005
 
This data was compiled and/or developed by the North Carolina GAP Analysis Project.

For more information please contact them at:
NC-GAP Analysis Project
Dept. of Zoology, NCSU
Campus Box 7617
Raleigh, NC 27695-7617
(919) 513-2853
www.basic.ncsu.edu/ncgap